School Vouchers
Private school voucher systems, in which parents are awarded vouchers
to send their children to private schools, have gained support in this
country over the past decade. Currently, vouchers are supported by about
one-half of all adults. Advocates of private school vouchers argue that
private schools do a better job of educating students than public schools.
They say private schools are unencumbered by bureaucracies, unions, and
burdensome state rules and regulations. Voucher proponents also maintain
that the resulting competition among and between public and private schools
will improve the quality of public schools.
There is a significant body of research on a variety of issues related
to private schools and school vouchers. Brief summaries of that research
are presented below.
In general, students who attend private schools achieve at slightly higher
levels than do public school students. However, research consistently
has shown that these differences are insignificant and primarily attributable
to the fact that parents of private school students tend to have higher
levels of education and higher levels of personal wealth (Alexander and
Pallis, 1985; Levin, 1990; and Meyer, 1989).
| Private education in the United States is not homogeneous. A 1998
study by the National Center for Education Statistics (Private School
Universe Survey, 1995-96) offered summary information on private
schools in the United States, including the following: - In the fall of 1995 there were nearly 28,000 private schools
in the United States. They enrolled approximately 5 million students
(10% of all U. S. students).
- One-third of all private schools were Catholic, which enrolled
one-half of private school students.
- Regions with the most private schools were the Midwest (27%
of the total) and the South (29%).
|
More recently, Murray (1999) reports that scores on the National Assessment
of Educational Progress do not indicate that private schools are superior
to public schools. In fact, he points out that advantaged students do
marginally better in public schools, while disadvantaged students do slightly
better in private schools. In either case, he notes that the differences
are insignificant.
Private schools do not accept all students who wish to attend. In 1982,
Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore reported that the screening criteria typically
include personal interviews, grades, and analysis of behavioral patterns.
Likewise, research by Corwin (1993) found that nearly all Catholic schools,
which represent the largest proportion of private schools in the United
States, require test scores for admission, in addition to strong academic
records (61% of sampled schools), recommendations of elementary school
principals (73%), and successful completion of the previous school year
(98%). About one-half require interviews with parents and students.
More recently, Ascher and Gray also make note of the selection practices
used by nonsectarian and Catholic schools, which would be the primary
options available to voucher recipients (1999):
“Voucher programs claim to give parents
a choice; in reality, they give parents the option to be chosen by a private
school. Nonsectarian private and Catholic schools have always kept a firm
hand on both admissions and exits: Academic entrance requirements, interviews,
class-size limits, changes in tuition, and expulsions are established
by private schools to determine who enters and remains. It is the fact
that these schools choose their students that helps them become high performing.
Clearly, this is not the kind of choice that assists those students who
have been failed by public schools and whose skills are lacking (p. 33).”
Corwin notes that only a minority of Catholic schools provide bilingual
services (9%), programs for the handicapped (12%), or vocational/technical
programs (14%). These practices stand in sharp contrast to America’s
public schools, which are required to educate all students in a community
regardless of personal or family characteristics.
In Wisconsin’s public schools, between 12 and 13 percent of students
receive special education services. Of the 150,140 students enrolled in
the state’s private schools as of December 1, 1996, only 1,119 (.75%)
were enrolled in special education programs.
There also are those who remind us that a system of private school vouchers
would erode the advantages that private schools currently have, including
selective admission policies, a smaller bureaucracy, and lower salaries.
For example, Corwin (1993) concludes that the costs of private schools
would soon rise under a voucher program because private schools would
be pressured to educate all children, including those with special needs.
Once this happens, these schools will face the same problems encountered
by the typical public school. The costs of educating students in private
schools are also likely to increase significantly. Perhaps this is why
many representatives of mainline church schools have expressed concerns
about the potential impact of a voucher system on their curricula and
programs.
Finally, advocates of vouchers argue that the resulting competition from
private schools will benefit public education. Carnoy (1993) concludes
that this conviction is based on the dubious premise that a little competition
from a few private schools will reform the vast enterprise of public education.
This argument also is problematic because in small and rural communities
there is no private school alternative.
The popular media also have investigated the issue of private school
superiority. In the October, 1994 issue of Money Magazine Topolnicki
reached some important conclusions in her study of public and private
schools:
· “Forget the myth that private schools are the best. Our survey
shows many public schools are every bit as good — if not better”
(p. 98).
- Students who attend the best public schools outperform most private
school students. Furthermore, the level of student achievement is relatively
similar at advantaged public and elite prep schools (p. 100).
- The average public school teacher has stronger academic qualifications
than the average private school teacher (p. 100). In fact, half of all
public school teachers hold advanced degrees, compared with only a third
of private school instructors.
- The best public schools offer a more challenging curriculum than most
private schools (p. 100).
- Public school class sizes are no larger than in most private schools
and are smaller than in most Catholic schools (p. 100).
- “The best news to come out of Money’s survey of public
and private schools across America was that, by and large, public schools
are not lacking in experienced topnotch teachers, challenging courses
or an environment that is conducive to learning. What many public schools
are lacking is a student body brimming with kids eager to take advantage
of what the school has to offer” (p. 112).
- “Shocked? So were we. After all, some of us, like some of you,
send our children to private schools and thus pay twice for education
— through high property taxes plus tuition. . . If you are the
parent of one of those kids, here’s the bottom line: You are probably
wasting your hard-earned money” (p. 100).
In 1990, Wisconsin created the Milwaukee Parental Choice Program. This
was the nation’s first private school voucher program and was intended
to improve the Milwaukee public school system. The Milwaukee Parental
Choice Program allows up to 15 percent of all students in Milwaukee Public
Schools to attend private schools at public expense (the amount of the
voucher is equal to the Milwaukee Public School per-student, state aid).
In order to be eligible, students must come from households with incomes
no greater than 1.75 times the poverty level. Wisconsin Statute 119.23
identifies students who are eligible for the choice program during the
1998-99 school year:
In the previous school year the pupil was enrolled in the school district
operating under this chapter (i.e., MPS), was attending a private school
under this section, was enrolled in grades kindergarten to 3 in a private
school located in the city other than under this section or was not enrolled
in school.
If student applications to attend a participating private school exceed
enrollment limits, schools are required to use a random selection process.
During the 1998-99 school year, slightly more than 6,000 students attended
86 private schools. Of this number, 30 are non-religious schools with
nearly 2,100 students; 56 are religious schools with an enrollment of
nearly 4,000. Participation has grown steadily since the program was first
implemented in 1990-91. At that time, 337 students attended voucher schools.
In fact, enrollment has increased dramatically since 1997-98 (about 1,500
students) because of the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruling that expanded
the program to include religious schools in Milwaukee. Of the 6,000 students
who attended private schools during the 1998-99 school year, approximately
5,000 already were attending a private school the previous year.
The standards for participating private schools are minimal. They are
not required to employ certified teachers, nor are they required to accept
students with Exceptional Educational Needs if significant adjustments
to school programs or facilities are required. In addition, students are
not required to participate in state level testing programs.
Other requirements: They must not discriminate against students; they
must provide at least 875 hours of instruction each year in reading, language
arts, mathematics, social studies, science and health; and they must meet
all health and safety laws or codes that apply to Wisconsin’s public
schools.
Once in the program, schools can continue if they meet one of four criteria:
(1) 70 percent or more of the students must advance at least one grade
level each year; (2) there must be an average attendance rate of 90 percent;
(3) at least 80 percent of the students must demonstrate significant academic
progress, or (4) at least 70 percent of parents must meet parent involvement
criteria established by each of the participating schools.
Analysis of test data from the first five years of the Milwaukee Parental
Choice Program for the first few years showed that the performance of
voucher children was about equal to the students who remained in Milwaukee
public schools (Witte, 1995 and 1997). An evaluation of the Cleveland
Voucher Program by researchers at Indiana University also reported no
significant difference in achievement between voucher and students in
the Cleveland Public Schools (Metcalf, et al, 1998). Walsh (1998) notes
that the most surprising finding is that students attending private schools
which were opened after the voucher program was begun performed worse
in all subject areas than students in the Cleveland Public Schools and
other private schools.
These findings are not unexpected. Research shows that differences in
achievement between public and private school students are primarily a
function of family characteristics; the family and social circumstances
of children who attend Milwaukee voucher schools and those who attend
Milwaukee public schools are essentially the same. (It should be noted
that children who have entered the voucher schools have been somewhat
poorer and have had lower levels of achievement than children remaining
in MPS. Also parents of voucher students express high levels of satisfaction
for the schools their children attend.)
The state of Wisconsin issues a check payable to the parent of a voucher
student and sends it to the school in which the child is enrolled. The
parent then signs the check over to the school to cover the cost of tuition.
During the 1998-99 school year, participating choice schools receive $4,894
per student, or the private school’s operating and debt service cost
per student, whichever is less.
Current law requires participating schools to admit students on a random
basis if applications exceed available space. There is an exception provided;
siblings of voucher students can be given preference. Early in 1999, the
NAACP and People for the American Way charged that many Milwaukee voucher
schools were either violating the random selection process and/or failing
to submit their random selection plan to the Department of Public Instruction.
As a result of this complaint, the DPI has indicated it will more closely
monitor selection practices, along with requiring participating private
schools to submit their random selection plans to the DPI.
In their selection practices, voucher schools are not allowed to discriminate
against a child with special needs during the admission process. However,
the choice school is required to offer services to students with special
needs if they can be provided with minor and inexpensive adjustments.
Voucher advocates maintain that voucher programs benefit all students.
Students receiving vouchers are helped because they can attend a private
school of their own choosing, while students who remain in the existing
public schools benefit because competition from the voucher schools will
improve public education. These promises eventually may be realized; however,
there is little or no evidence at this time to show this is the case.
— WEAC Division for Instruction
and Professional Development
Alexander, K. L. and Pallas, A.M. “School Sector and Cognitive Performance.
When is a Little a Little?” Sociology of Education (April 1985):
115-128.
Ascher, Carol and Gray, Richard. “Substituting the Privilege of
Choice for the Right to Equality.” Education Week (June 2, 1999).
Corwin, Ronald. Private Schools and Parental Choice. Los Alamitos, CA:
Southwest Regional Laboratory, 1993.
Coleman, James S., Hoffer, Thomas and Kilgore, Sally. High School Achievement.
New York: Basic Books, 1982.
Levin, H.M. “The Theory of Choice Applied to Education.” In
Choice and Control in American Education, Vol III: The Practice of Choice,
Decentralization, and School Restructuring, pp. 285-318. Edited by W.
Clune and J. Witte. New York City: Falmer Press, 1990.
Metcalf, Kim, et al. A Comparative Evaluation of the Cleveland Scholarship
and Tutoring Program and Evaluation of the Cleveland Scholarship Program:
Second Year Report, 1997-1998. Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana,
1997
Murray, Frank B. “What’s So Good About Choice?” Education
Week. January 27, 1999. www.edweek.org/
Private School Universe Survey, 1995-96. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department
of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, March 1998. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs98/98229.pdf
Topolnicki, Denise M. “Why Private Schools are Rarely Worth the
Money.” Money Magazine (October 1994): 98-112.
Witte, John et al. Fifth-Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice Program.
Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 1995.
Witte, John. Achievement Effects of the Milwaukee Voucher Program. Madison,
Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, 1997.
Walsh, Mark. “Vouchers Yield Mixed Results, Report Says.” Education
Week, (December 2, 1998). www.edweek.org/