Private Schools & Vouchers: What the Research Shows
Advocates of private school choice believe that private schools do a
better job of educating students than the public schools. They also maintain
that private schools better meet the needs of minority and disadvantaged
children. In explaining the success of private schools, critics typically
argue that private schools are unencumbered by bureaucracies, unions,
and unreasonable state rules and regulations. Finally, choice advocates
maintain that the resulting competition among and between public and private
schools will improve the overall quality of American education.
The case for private school choice rests on questionable assumptions
and little or no supporting data. Those who maintain that private school
choice is the solution to America's educational problems should read the
research literature in this area. They will find that there are few data
to suggest that private school choice will solve the problems of American
public education.
In the debate about the merits of private school choice we must not forget
that American public education is based on the concept of the common school.
This important idea, which is credited primarily to Horace Mann and others
in the 1830's, viewed public education as the fundamental way to prepare
children from diverse ethnic, religious, and class backgrounds to live
as responsible citizens in a democracy. Because public education was perceived
as a public "good," it was to be supported by taxes from all
members of the community, controlled by elected or appointed officials
who were responsible to the entire community, and offer a curriculum which
was nonsectarian.
Public schools in the United States have provided children with a set
of experiences which benefit the country as a whole. As Carnoy notes,
"A public school in Iowa creates approximately the same social experience
for its pupils as a school in Massachusetts. This experience . . . has
in the past been fairly successful in conveying a set of common values
to many generations of young children. It is probably the only unifying
and democratizing process that young people undergo in a highly diversified
society with no compulsory military service" (p. 167).
Critics remind us that private school choice will further segregate the
United States along the lines of class, race, religion, and ethnicity.
Greater segregation by religion is especially likely because 82% of private
schools in the United States are religious schools, and 86% of private
school students are enrolled in religious schools.
What does the research show about private school superiority and the
merits of private school choice?
Many Americans believe that private school students receive an education
which is superior to that of students who attend the public schools. However,
the evidence for private school superiority is very weak. Research conducted
in 1980, 1982, and 1984 provided a substantial data base for comparing
the achievement levels of public and private school students. Using these
data, early researchers first concluded that private schools were superior
in promoting student achievement (Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore, 1982).
Subsequent research, however, consistently has shown that these differences
are insignificant and primarily attributable to factors such as differences
in student backgrounds (Alexander and Pallis, 1985; Levin, 1990; and Meyer,
1989).
Others also have concluded that the discrepancies in achievement levels
between public and private school students have almost nothing to do with
the structure of the schools and are primarily a function of the differences
in students' backgrounds and family characteristics. For example, data
collected by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) on
a national sample of 12th grade students show that the parents of private
school students tend to have much higher levels of formal education than
do public school parents. This is especially important because the strongest
predictor of student academic success is family structure, including parents'
levels of education and family size (Grissmer, 1994).
In a 1993 article on educational choice, Lee investigated the implications
of course selection practices on student achievement. She reports that
students who take an academic track in the public schools tend to achieve
at higher levels than students who select a non-academic set of courses.
She also notes that minority students and students from poorer families
are less likely to take demanding academic courses.
Lee suggests that if schools required all students to take a core curriculum,
while also eliminating or minimizing tracking (as is done in most private
schools), this would improve the overall achievement levels of all public
school students. It also would help to minimize the disparate levels in
achievement found among groups of students.
Private schools do not accept all students who wish to attend. The evidence
regarding the selection practices of private schools is well documented.
In 1982, Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore reported that the screening criteria
typically include personal interviews, grades, and analysis of behavioral
patterns.
Likewise, research by Corwin (1993) found that nearly all Catholic schools
require test scores for admission, in addition to strong academic records
(61% of sampled schools), recommendations of elementary school principals
(73%), and successful completion of the previous school year (98%). About
one-half require interviews with parents and students.
Data collected by the U.S. Department of Education (February, 1991) show
that private schools tend to educate children from wealthier families.
Whereas 31% of public school students have family incomes of less than
$15,000, approximately 12% of religious school students and 10% of non-religious
private school students have family incomes this low.
As for the students served, Corwin notes that only a minority of Catholic
schools provide bilingual services (9%), programs for the handicapped
(12%), or vocational/technical programs (14%). Corwin also points out
that even though Catholic schools tend to enroll a high percent of minority
students, these are students who go through the screening criteria noted
above.
These practices stand in sharp contrast to America's public schools which
are required to educate all students in a community, regardless of personal
or family characteristics.
The case for private school choice rests on several unexamined assumptions,
including the belief that students will achieve at higher levels, that
private schools will participate extensively in a choice program, that
entrepreneurs will rush in to create new, quality schools, and that the
resulting "competition" will benefit public schools. These assumptions
are discussed below.
Student Achievement: There is scant research regarding the effect of
choice on student achievement. However, analysis of test data from the
Milwaukee choice program showed that the performance of voucher children
was about equal to the students who remained in the Milwaukee public schools
(Witte, 1991 and 1992). This finding should not be unexpected because
research shows that the differences in achievement between public and
private school students are primarily a function of family characteristics
and that the family and social circumstances of the Milwaukee choice and
Milwaukee public school children are essentially the same.
Populations Served: There also is evidence to suggest that the majority
of existing private schools would be unwilling or unable to participate
in a choice program. A recent study of 1,000 private schools in California
by Dianda and Corwin (1992) found that the majority would not accept significantly
more students under a voucher program. In fact, 25% indicated they would
not participate at all, whereas 70% indicated they would expand their
enrollment by no more than 15%.
The Dianda and Corwin research suggests that a voucher program would
benefit only a small percent of students. Furthermore, as Lee (1993) argues,
academically and socially disadvantaged students and their families are
less likely to seek out, or have access to, information about the consequences
of their choices (of either schools or courses). The most likely consequence
of a voucher program, Lee concludes, will be an increase in the inequitable
distribution of educational outcomes among diverse social and racial groups
(p. 125).
In other words, middle and upper class parents will most likely be the
main beneficiaries of a voucher program.
Entrepreneurs:Advocates of choice argue that entrepreneurs will create
new schools of high quality to meet the needs of parents and students.
The reality may be few entrepreneurs, low quality, and many failures,
the latter a consequence of the financial instability associated with
any new enterprise, along with the absence of a reputation for competence
and reliability. As a result of the track records of the Edison Project
and Education Alternatives, Inc., one should be wary of those who believe
that private school entrepreneurs are the solution to the low achievement
levels of some students.
Further, those who believe that large numbers of entrepreneurs will emerge
assume that there are surplus dollars in the public schools which can
be turned into profits. In addition, the case for a voucher program rests
on the assumption that the public is willing to have a significant portion
of its tax revenues, which have been secured for basic school programs,
turned into profits for a few.
Effects of Choice on Private Schools:There also are those who remind
us that a system of private school vouchers would erode the advantages
that private schools currently have, including selective admission policies,
a smaller bureaucracy, and lower salaries. For example, Corwin (1993)
concludes that the costs of private schools would soon rise under a voucher
program because private schools would be pressured to educate all children,
including those with special needs. Once this happens, they will face
the same problems encountered by the typical public school. Perhaps this
is why many representatives of mainline church schools have expressed
concern about the potential impact of a voucher system on their curricula
and program.
Competition: Finally, one should be leery of the assertion that competition
from private schools will benefit public education. Carnoy (1993) concludes
that this conviction is based on the dubious premise that a little competition
from a few private schools will reform the vast enterprise of public education.
The popular media has also begun to investigate the issue of private
school superiority. The October, 1994 issue of Money Magazine (Topolnicki)
reached some important conclusions in its empirical study of public
and private schools:
-
"Forget the myth that private schools are the best. Our survey
shows many public schools are every bit as good--if not better"
(p. 98).
-
Students who attend the best public schools outperform most private
school students. Furthermore, the level of student achievement is
relatively similar at advantaged public and elite prep schools (p.
100).
-
The average public school teacher has stronger academic qualifications
than the average private school teacher (p. 100). (Half of all public
school teachers hold advanced degrees, compared with only a third
of private school instructors).
-
The best public schools offer a more challenging curriculum than
most private schools (p. 100).
-
Public school class sizes are no larger than in most private schools
and are smaller than in most Catholic schools (p. 100).
-
"The best news to come out of Money's survey of public
and private schools across America was that by and large, public schools
are not lacking in experienced topnotch teachers, challenging courses
or an environment that is conducive to learning. What many public
schools are lacking is a student body brimming with kids eager to
take advantage of what the school has to offer" (p. 112).
-
"Shocked? So were we. After all, some of us, like some of you,
send our children to private schools and thus pay twice for education--through
high property taxes plus tuition. Indeed, roughly 30% of the kids
who live in affluent public school districts came out best in our
study attend private schools, vs. only 11% of all U.S. students. If
you are the parent of one of those kids, here's the bottom line: You
are probably wasting your hard-earned money" (p. 100).
Alexander, K. L. and A. M. Pallas. "School Sector and Cognitive
Performance: When is a Little a Little?" Sociology of Education,
(April 1985): 115-128.
Carnoy, Martin. "School Improvement: Is Privatization the
Answer?" In Decentralization and School Improvement. Edited by Jane
Hannaway and Martin Carnoy, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993.
Corwin, Ronald Private Schools and Parental Choice. Los Alamitos,
CA: Southwest Regional Laboratory, 1993.
Coleman, James S., Hoffer, Thomas and Kilgore, Sally. High School
Achievement. New York: Basic Books, 1982.
Dianda, R. R. and Corwin, R.G. The Private Sector considers
Educational Vouchers in California. Los Alamitos, CA: Southwest Regional
Laboratory, 1992.
Grissmer, David W. et al. Student Achievement and the Changing
American Family. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1994.
Lee, Valerie E. "Educational Choice: The Stratifying Effects
of Selecting Schools and Courses." Educational Policy,
( June 1993): 125-148.
Leven, H. M. "The Theory of Choice Applied to Education."
In Choice and Control in American Education, Vol. III: The Practice
of Choice, Decentralization, and School Restructuring, pp. 285 - 318.
Edited by W. Clune and J. Witte. New York City: Falmer Press, 1990.
Meyer, Robert H. Applied versus Traditional Mathematics: New Economic
Models of the contributions of High School Courses to Mathematics Proficiency.
Washington, D.C.: National Assessment of Vocational Education, 1989.
Private Schools in the United States: A Statistical Profile With
Comparison to Public Schools. Washington, C.E.L US Department of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics, 1991.
Topolnicki, Denise M. "Why Private Schools are Rarely Worth
the Money." Money Magazine, (October 1994): 98- 112.
Witte, John F., Bailey, Andrew B. and Thorn, Christopher A. Second
Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice Program. Madison, WI:
University of Wisconsin-Madision, 1992.
Witte, John F. First Year Report: Milwaukee Parental Choice
Program. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1991.
This document was prepared by the WEAC Professional Development &
Training